Table of Contents

Preface; Acknowledgement; 1. Introduction to Engineering Geology; 1.1 What is engineering geology?; 1.1.1 Definition and application; 1.1.2 Geology vs. civil engineering; 1.2 Importance of engineering geology in civil engineering; 1.3 Engineering practice with rocks and soils in ancient India; 1.3.1 Prehistoric time; 1.3.2 Early historic time; 1.4 History of development of engineering geology in India; 1.4.1
Concept of Mansara (Silpa Sastra) in 6th century; 1.4.2 Activity of GSI from 19th century; 1.5 Work-activity of engineering geologists; 1.6 Forum of engineering geologists and engineers; 1.7 Recent advancement in engineering geology; 1.8 Summary; Review
questions; 2. Rocks and Minerals with reference to Engineering usage of rocks; 2.1 Major rock types and their origin; 2.1.1 Igneous rocks and intrusive bodies; 2.1.2 Sedimentary rocks; 2.1.3 Metamorphic rocks; 2.2 Classification, description and engineering usage of igneous rocks; 2.2.1 General observation and a simplified classification of igneous rocks; 2.2.2 Colour and texture of igneous rocks; 2.2.3 Description and engineering usage of igneous rocks; 2.3 Classification,
description and engineering usage of sedimentary rocks; 2.3.1 A simplified classification of sedimentary rocks; 2.3.2 Texture of sedimentary rocks and rounding of particles; 2.3.3 Description and engineering usage of
clastic sedimentary rocks; 2.3.4 Description and engineering usage of non-clastic sedimentary rocks; 2.4 Classification, description and engineering usage of metamorphic rocks; 2.4.1 A simplified classification of metamorphic rocks; 2.4.2 Fabrics of metamorphic rocks; 2.4.3 Description and engineering usage of metamorphic rocks; 2.5 Minerals, their origin and different characteristics; 2.5.1 The crystal forms of minerals; 2.5.2 Physical characters of minerals; 2.5.3 Mohs scale of hardness; 2.6
Chemical composition and other characters of rock forming minerals; 2. 6.1 Classification of minerals; (i) Silicate class; (ii) Carbonate class; (iii) Sulphate, phosphate, chromate etc. class; (iv)
Halide class; (v) Oxide and hydroxide class; (vi) Sulphide class; (vii) Native element class; 2.7. Rock-forming, ore-forming and gem varieties minerals; 2.7.1 Dominant rock forming minerals; 2.7.2 Common ore forming minerals; 2.7.3 Notable precious and semiprecious minerals; 2.8. Identification of minerals under microscope; 2.9. Geological time-scale and unconformity between rock formations; 2.8.1 The relative and absolute time-scale; 2.8.2 Unconformity of rock formations and its delimitation;
2.10 Field identification of common rocks with simple accessories; 2.11 Summary; Review questions; 3. Rock structures and their Engineering significance; 3.1 Deformation mechanism of rocks; 3.1.1
Stress and strain result on brittle and ductile rocks; 3.1.2 Elastic and plastic deformation; 3.2 Folds and causes of their formation; 3.2.1 Anatomy of folds; 3.2.2Anticline and syncline, their symmetry and other features; 3.2.3 Principal types of folds and their field characters; 3.3 Causes and mechanism of faults; 3.3.1 Basic terms related to a fault; 3.3.2 Illustrative description of different types of fault; 3.3.3 Effect of faulting in brittle and ductile rocks; 3.3.4 Clues for field
identification of faults; 3.4. Causes of Jointing and genetic types of joints in rocks; 3.4.1 Orientation, spacing, roughness and other features of joints; 3.4.2 Types of joints in different rock types and
their origin; 3.4.3 Diagrammatic representation of joints; 3.5 Primary structures of sedimentary rocks and their significance; 3.6 Potential problems from rock structures in engineering constructions; 3.6.1 Problems of fold; 3.6.2 Harmful effects of fault; 3.6.3 Weakness of rocks due to joints, fractures and other features; 3.7 Summary; Review questions; 4. Weathering of rocks and its impact in engineering constructions; 4.1Types of weathering; 4.2 Mechanical weathering; 4.2.1
Thermal stress; 4.2.2 Spheroidal weathering; 4.2.3 Frost action; 4.2.4 Pressure release; 4.2.5 Slaking and haloclasty; 4.2.6 Tree root action; 4.3 Chemical weathering; 4.3.1 Oxidation; 4.3.2 Carbonation; 4.3.3
Hydration; 4.3.4 Hydrolysis; 4.4 Biological weathering; 4.5 Effect of weathering due to climatic condition and geologic time; 4.6 Impact of weathering in engineering constructions; 4.6.1 Engineering geological significance; 4.7 Summary; Review questions; 5. Soil formation, engineering classification and description of Indian soils; 5.1 Geological processes responsible for formation of soil; 5.1.1 Formation of soil from weathering and decomposition of rocks; 5.1.2 Residual and
transported soil; 5.1.3 Erosion, transportation and deposition; 5.2 Glacial, Fluvioglacial actions; 5.2.1Features of glacial activity and old remnants; 5.2.2 Problems of engineering construction in glacial deposits;
5.2.3 Fluvioglacial and glacial-lacustrine deposits; 5.3 Wind action and dunes; 5.3.1 Wind bourn deposit, loess - formation and engineering problems; 5.4 Formation of terraces, talus and organic deposits; 5.4.1 Glacial terrace; 5.4.2 River terrace; 5.4.3 Marine terrace; 5.4.4 Talus deposits; 5.4.5 Organic soils including pits; 5.5 Soils derived from different depositional regimes; (i) Alluvial soil; (ii) Glacial soil; (iii) Aeolian soil; (iv) Colluvial soil; (v) Soil from volcanic ash; (vi)
Organic soil; 5.6 Soil classification for engineering constructions; 5.6.1 Coarse grained soil; 5.6.2 Fine grained soil; 5.6.3 Organic soils; 5.7 Identification of different soil types; 5.7.1 Visual
observation to identify soil types; 5.7.2 Additional information of soil for design purposes; 5. 8 Clay minerals in soil and their engineering significance; 5.8.1 The types of clay minerals; 5.8.2 Sensitive clay, its disturbing characters and rectification; 5.9 Soils of India, their characteristics and occurrence; 5.10 Summary; Review Questions; 6. Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics; 6.1 Soil component and size of soil particles; 6.1.1 size fractions of soils; 6.1.2 Structure of
soil; 6.2 Index properties of soil and their laboratory determination; 6.2.1 Water content; 6.2.2 Specific gravity; 6.2.3 Unit weight; 6.2.4 Density; 6.2.5 Porosity; 6.2.6 Void ratio; 6.2.7 Relation between porosity and
void ration; 6.3 Consistency limits (Atterberg limits) and their determination; 6.4 Field methods of density determination; 6.4.1Water displacement method; 6.4.2 Sand replacement method; 6.4.3 Core cutter method; 6.4.4 Rubber-Balloon method; 6.5 Size and shape of soil particles; 6.5.1 Mechanical analysis for sieved fractions; 6.5.2 Wet analysis (sedimentation method; 6.5.3 Size distribution curves of soil particles; 6.5.4 Shape (angularity and roundness) of soil particles; 6.6. Swelling clay
and its expansive characters; 6.6.1 Laboratory test fore swelling co-efficient; 6.6.2 Measurement of expansive pressure; 6.7 Soil permeability; 6.7.1 Flow characteristics and Darcy's law; 6.7.2
Laboratory determination of soil permeability; 6.7.3 Determination of field permeability of soil by pumping test; 6.8 Consolidation of soil; 6.8.1 Laboratory test of consolidation; 6.8.2 Calculation of void ratio and coefficient of volume change; 6.9 Soil compaction; 6.9.1 Process of compaction; 6.9.2 Compression machineries and their performance; 6.9.3 Standard and modified proctor test; 6 9.4 Proctor needle and its use; 6.10 Earth pressure and retaining structures; 6.10.1 The retaining
structures; 6.10.2 Back-fill: materials used and drainage; 6.11 Shear stress, shear strength, and failure mechanism; 6.11.1 Mohr-Coulomb shear failure criterion; 6.11.2 How to draw Mohr's circle; 6.11.3
Direct shear test; 6.11.4 Triaxial compression test; 6.115 Unconfined compression test; 6.11.6 Vane shear test; 6.12 Building site geotechnical investigation; 6.12.1 Loads of building and foundation exploration; 6.12.2 Design Bearing capacity for building foundation; 6.13 Determination of bearing capacity of soil for building site; 6.13.1Static cone penetration test; 6.13.2 Plate load tests; 6.14 Shallow building foundations; 6.14.1 Spread footing; 6.14.2 Mat or raft; 6.14.3 On-grade mat
foundation; 6.15 Deep foundation of building; 6.15.1 Pile foundation; 6.15.2 Pier foundation; 6.15.3 Caisson; 6.16 Summary; Review questions; 7. Hydrology and Geological works of rivers; 7.1 River hydrology;
7.1.1 Hydraulic parameters; 7.2 Erosional processes of a river; 7.2.1 Main forces causing erosion; 7.2.2 The factors deciding the rate of erosion; 7.3 Depositional and transportation characteristics of a river; 7.3.1 Manner movement of sediment load; 7.3.2 Sediment load of Indian rivers; 7.4 Work-activity of a rive in different stages; 7.4.1Young stage river work-activity; 7.4.2 The middle or mature stage work and meandering flow; 7.4.3 Old stage work and formation of deltas; 7.5 Characteristic
deposition of deltaic environment; 7.6 The river drainage patterns and river-capture; 7.7 Engineering use of river deposits/alluvial soil; 7.8 Summary; Review questions; 8. Geological works of oceans
and coastal management; 8.1 Ocean features and divisions of ocean floor; 8.2 The agents of ocean activity; 8.2.1 Waves: characteristic and activity; 8.2.2 Current: types and behavior; 8.2.3 Tides: patterns and effect; 8.3 Landform created by ocean erosion; 8.4 Some typical oceanic landforms; 8.5 Coastal landforms of varied patterns and deposits; 8.6 Erosion of shallow coastal land; 8.6.1 The basic aspects; 8.6.2 Harmful effect coastal erosion; 8.6.3 Erosion of beach and
dunes; 8.6.4 Erosion of rocky coast/cliff area; 8.7 Littoral drifts; 8.8 Coastal management; 8.8.1 Use or groins, concrete and masonry wall, gabion and sand dunes; 8.8.2 Beach restoration; 8. 9. A case study - Coastal
Erosion at Uppada along Kakinada Coast of Andhra Pradesh (after Pal and Rao, 2009); 8.10 Summary; Review questions; 9. Underground water in relation to Engineering works; 9.1 Hydrologic cycle; 9.2 Mode of occurrence and source of underground water; 9.2.1 Groundwater and vadose water; 9.2.2 Juvenile and connate water; 9.3 Configuration of water table; 9.3.1 Fluctuation of water table; 9.3.2 Perched water table; 9.4 Soil water; 9.4.1 Structural water; 9.4.2 Hydroscopic water;
9.4.3 Capillary water; 9.5 Confined and unconfined aquifers; 9.5.1 Aquifer and aquiclude; 9.5.2 Hydrologic criteria to find aquifers; 9.5.3 Artesian flow; 9.5.4 Springs and their origin; 9.6 Water retaining and
transmitting capacity of soil and rock; 9.6.1 Porosity of soil; 9.6.2 Permeability in relation to porosity; 9.7 Groundwater movement; 9.8 Systematic groundwater investigation; 9.8.1 Basin-wise study; 9.8.2 Groundwater in hard rock mass; 9.8.3 Groundwater maps; 9.9 Groundwater province of India; 9.10 Utility, yield, withdrawal and artificial recharge of groundwater; 9.10.1 Uses in urban and rural areas; 9.10.2 Yield in different parts of India; 9.10.3 Cone of depression; 9.10.4 Environmental
degradation; 9.10.5 Artificial recharge; 9.10.6 Saltwater intrusion in groundwater; 9.11 Influence of underground water in engineering constructions; 9.11.1 Dams and reservoirs; 9.11.2 Road pavements and
soil slopes; 9.11.3 Groundwater problem in tunnelling; 9.11.4 Water retaining structures; 9.12 A Case study of groundwater problem and its solution; 9.13 Summary; Review questions; 10. Application of Rock Mechanics in Engineering Geology; 10.1 Relevance of rock mechanics in evaluating rock and rock mass properties; 10.2 Determination of common properties of rocks; 10.2.1 Specific gravity; 10.2.2 Density; 10.2.3 Unit weight; 10.2.4 Porosity; 10.2.5 Absorption; 10.3 Measurement
of strength of intact rocks; 10.3.1 Rebound hammer test; 10.3.2 Point load test; 10.3.3 Uniaxial compression test; 10.3.4 Triaxial Compression test; 10.3.5 Brazilian tests; 10.3.6 Results of common engineering
properties; 10.4 Elastic properties of rocks; 10.5 Measurement of stress in underground rocks; 10.5.1 Flat jack test; 10.5 2 Borehole over-coring method of stress measurement; 10.5.3 Borehole extensometer test for rock movement; 10.6 Estimation of rock mass properties; 10.6.1 Rock mass classification; 10.6.2 Classification of Terzaghi; 10.6.3 Rock Quality designation Index (RQD); 10.7 NGI rock mass classification to estimate tunnelling quality index Q; 10.7.1The parameters used in NGI
classification with tables; 10.7.2 A practical example of using tunnel quality index Q; 10.8 Geomechanics classification of rock mass; 10.8.1Parameters used in Rock Mass Ratings with Tables; 10.8.2 Practical
example of use of RMR; 10.9 Geological Strength Index (GSI) for blocky and heterogeneous rocks; 10.10 Summary; Review questions; 11. Site Investigation: Remote Sensing, Geophysical Exploration and Drilling; 11.1 Different stages of site investigation; 11.1.1 Initial stage (Planning phase); (i) Preparation of geological map; (ii) Dip and strike; (iii) Geological map vs. engineering geology map; 11.1.2 Feasibility stage (Design phase); (i) Special purpose engineering geology map;
(ii) Subsurface map/Drill hole data presentation; 11.1.3 Construction stage; 11.1.4 Post-construction stage; 11.2 Aerial photo interpretation and satellite remote sensing; 11.2.1 Aerial photography; 11.2.2 Application
of stereoscope; 11.2.3 Photographic elements: tone, shape and texture; 11.2.4 Ground pattern; 11.2.5 Identification of common rocks; 11.2.6 Identification of large rock bodies and major rock structures; 11.2.7 Satellite remote sensing:; (i) Techniques of producing imagery; (ii) Application of remote sensing; 11.3 Geophysical exploration; 11.3.1 Seismic survey; 11.3.2 Gravity survey; 11.3.3 Magnetic survey; 11.3.4 Resistivity survey; 113.5 Radioactivity logging; 11.4 Sub-soil exploration and
sampling in soil; 11.4.1 Exploration in sites of engineering structures; 11.4.2 Sampling from pit and using soil sampler with drill rod; 11.5 Methods of subsoil investigation; 11.5.1 Pitting and
trenching; 11.5.2 Penetration resistance; 11.5.3 Exploration by drill holes; (i) Auger holes; (ii) Wash boring; (iii) Percussion drilling; 11.6 Exploratory drilling in rock; 11.6.1 Importance of rock drilling in engineering geology work; 11.6.2 Rotary drilling; 11.6.3 Spacing of drill holes; 11.6.4 Selection of bits for drilling in boulder deposit; 11.6.5 How to improve core recovery; 11.6.6 Logging of drill cores & diagrammatic presentation; 11.7 Water pumping tests: utility and
approach; 11.8 Summary; Review questions; 12. Construction Materials; 12.1 Principal types of construction material; 12.2 Character and usage of different types of construction material; 12.2.1 Dimension stones for
building stone, facing stone and decoration; 12.2.2 Crushed stones for road metal, railway ballasts and rip rap; 12.2.3 Suitability of rocks for engineering construction; 12.2.4 Aggregates for concrete; 12.2.5 Soil and clay; 12.2.6 Pozollans; 12.2.7 Fly ash (Artificial Pozollans); 12.3 Laboratory tests of aggregates with Indian standard specification; 12.3.1Aggregate crushing test; 12.3.2 Aggregate impact test; 12.3.3 Los Angel's abrasion test; 12.3.4 Deval attrition test; 12.3.5 Soundness test
(Sodium Sulphate test); 12.4 Materials for use as railway ballast and road metal; 12.4.1 Rock types suitable and the desired properties; 12.4.2 Specification of concrete aggregate by IS for road; 12.5
Deleterious materials and alkali aggregate reaction; 12.6 Petrographic study of aggregate; 12.7 Source of construction materials in India; 12.8 Exploration for construction materials and selecting quarry sites; 12.9 Summary; Review questions; 13. Treatment of rocks and soils by Grouting; 13.1 Geotechnical considerations in grouting; 13.1.1 Relation of grouting to rock type, structure and overburden; 13.1.2 Problem of grouting cavities; 13.2 Different types of grouting including
their patterns; 13.2.1 Curtain grouting; 13.2.2 Consolidation grouting; 13. 2.3 Blanket grouting; 13. 2.4 Contact growing; 13.2.5 Special purpose grouting; 13.3 Grouting equipment and packers; 13.4 Basic ingredients
of grout and admixtures; 13.4.1 Ingredient of grout; 13.4.2 Grout mixture; 13.4.3 Chemical grout and epoxy grout with instance of their use; 13.5 Grouting approach for various engineering structures; 13.5.1 Grouting of concrete dam foundation; 13.5.2 Grouting Earth and Rock fill dam; 13.5.3 Grout curtain with drainage holes; 13.5.4 Reservoir rim grouting; 13.5.5 Grouting tunnel and Underground chamber; 13.6 Grouting plan and pattern with Indian examples; 13.6.1 Geological approach in preparing
plan for grouting; 13.6.2 Grouting plan with typical example; 13.6.3 Statistics of foundation grouting of major Indian dams; 13.7 Effective pressure and rock mass permeability; 13.8 Treatment of cavity
by grouting; 13.9 Efficacy of grouting; 13.10 Summary; Review questions; 14. Dams and Spillways; 14.1 Terminology and basic aspects of dam construction; 14.1.1 Acting forces and design principles of dam safety; 14.1.2 The utilities of dams; 14.2 Types of dams and their functions; 14.2.1 Concrete dams; (i) Gravity dam; (ii) Arch dam; (iii) Buttress dam; 14.2.2 Masonry dam; 14.2.3 Rock-fill dam; 14.2.4 Earth dam; 14.2.5 Composite dam, tailing dam, barrage and weir; 14.3 Spillways
and gates; 14.3.1 Normal spillway; 14.3.2 Pipe spillway; 14.3.3 Tunnel spillway; 14.3.4 Glory hole spillway; 14.3.5 Side channel spillway; 14.3.6 Outlet work; 14.3.7 Gates of different types and their functions; 14.4
Influence of geomorphology and geology in the design of a dam; 14.5 Adverse effect of fault in dam foundation and its treatment; 14.5.1 Treatment of fault by plug and its depth calculation; 14.5.2 Stresses along fault at different dispositions; 14.6 Causative factors of dam disasters; 14.6.1Geological causes; 14.6.2 Other causes; 14.7 Preliminary investigation and selection of a dam site; 14.8 Detailed investigation of a dam site for design purposes; 14.9 Source of building materials for
different types of dam; 14.9.1 Building materials for concrete dams; 14.9.2 Boulders and rock fragments for masonry dams; 14.9.3 Fill material for rock fill-dams; 14.9.4 Sandy and clayey materials for earth
dams; 14.9.5 Rip-rap for protecting dam slopes; 14.9.6 Impervious core materials for a dam; 14.9.7 Guidelines for selecting sites for building materials; 14.10 River diversion and construction work; 14.10.1 Method of diverting river; 14.10.2 Foundation preparation; 14.10 3 Construction approach for dams of different types; 14.11 Post-construction work; 14.12 Summary; Review questions; 15. Reservoirs; 15.1 Creation and function of a reservoir; 15.2 Degradation of catchment and
reservoir rim areas; 15.3 Erosion of reservoir area and sedimentation; 15.3.1 Relation of erosion with rainfall; 15.3.2 Sedimentation/siltation rate; 15.3.3 Measurement of siltation; 15.3.4 Siltation study by remote
sensing and aerial-photo study; 15.4 Reservoir capacity and reservoir life; 15.5 Salient aspects of reservoir investigation; 15.5.1 Different possibilities of reservoir leakage; 15.5.2 Problem from slide and resultant sedimentation; 15.5 3 Investigation for protection of national assets; 15.6 Pump Storage scheme with case- study; 15.6.1 The basic aspects; 15.6.2 Investigation for Pump storage scheme; 15.6.3 Case study of Pump storage schemes; (A) Kadampari Pump storage, Tamil Nadu; (B) Purulia
Pump storage, West Bengal; 15.7 Petrological study of suspended silts in river water; 15.7.1 Procedure for determining hardness of particles; 15.7.2 An example of hardness measurement of river silt;
15.8 Reservoir related earthquakes; 15.9 Environmental impact on creation of a reservoir; 15.9.1 The salient aspect of environmental changes; 15.9.2 Measures to minimise adverse environmental effect; 15.10 Summary; Review questions; 16. Tunnels; 16.1 Components and types of tunnel; 16.2 Tunnelling through rocks; 16.2.1 Rock pressure and arching action in a tunnel; 16.2.2 Effect of bedded rock on tunnel lining; 16.2.3 Effect of a fault traversing a tunnel; 16.2.4 Effect of folds
on tunnel lining; 16.2.5 Rock cover and overbreaks in relation to joints; 16.2.6 Relation of overbreaks with tunnel dimensions; 16.3 Tunnelling through soft ground; 16.3.1 Type of material, imposed load and stability;
16.3.2 The method of soft ground tunnelling; 16.4 Geological hazards in tunnelling; (i).Overbreaks; (ii) Spalling; (iii) Flowing ground; (iii) Squeezing and heaving; (iv) Thermal spring; (v) Gas flow; (vi) Seismicity; 16.5 Different stages of geotechnical works for tunnel; 16.5.1 Selection of tunnel alignment; 16.5.2 Subsurface exploration; 16.5.3 Construction stage work: 3-D Tunnel Logging; 16.5.4 Other geological activities of tunnel work; 16.6 Conventional methods and machineries used in
tunnelling; 16.6.1 Conventional method of tunnelling by TBM; 16.6.2 Tunnelling by Rock Header machine; 16.6.3 Shield method of tunnel excavation; 16.7 Excavation methods of rock tunnelling and support
system; 16.7.1 Methods of full face, top heading, side & multiple drift; 16.7.2 Seven types of tunnel support including rock bolting; 16.8 Pressure tunnel and lining; 16.9 Rock mass quality and support requirement; 16.9.1 Design aspects; 16.9.2 Rock load system of Terzaghi for Tunnel support; 16.9.3 Methods of evaluating tunnel support by Q and RMR system; 16.10 Summary; Review questions; 17. Powerhouses; 17.1 Different types of powerhouse and generation of hydropower;
17.1.1 Harnessing hydropower from river; 17.2 Surface powerhouse of hydroelectric project; 17.2.1 Landform characters of a surface power house; 17.2.2 Preliminary site investigation including air photo study; 17.2.3 Detailed
site investigation by subsurface investigation; 17.2.4 Laboratory testing of rocks for strength properties; 17.2.5 Large scale foundation mapping and study of seismicity; 17.3 Instances of geotechnical problems of surface powerhouse and remedy; (1) Powerhouse of Ramganganga Project of Uttar Pradesh; (2) Bassi powerhouse of Himachal Pradesh,; (3) Balimela powerhouse of Orissa.; 17.4 Underground powerhouse of a hydroelectric project.; 17.4.1 General aspects; 17.4.2 Special considerations; 17.5
Instances of underground powerhouse problem and measures adopted; (1) Powerhouse of Koyana project of Maharashtra,; (2) Kadamparai powerhouse of Tamil Nadu,; (3) Powerhouse of Srisailam project of Andhra
Pradesh.; 17.6 Thermal powerhouse; 17.6.1 Basic needs; 17.5.2 Site investigation by mapping and subsurface drilling; 17.7 Nuclear powerhouse; 17.7.1Guidelines of Atomic Energy Commission on site selection; 17.7.2 Method of engineering geology investigation; 17.7.3 Problems of site selection in Himalayan area; 17.7.4 Problem of locating an Atomic power plant in alluvium; 17.8 Summary; Review questions; 18. Bridges; 18.1 The basics of a bridge; 18.2 Major types of bridges and
acting forces; 18.2.1 Girder bridge; 18.2.2 Arch bridge; 18.2.3 Cantilever bridge; 18.2.4 Suspension bridge; 18.2.5 Cable stayed bridge; 18.3 Supports and foundations of bridges; 18.3.1Abutments and piers; 18.3.2 Well
foundation for bridges; 18.3.3 Composition of a well foundation; 18.3.4 Sinking of well to sub-soil; 18.3.5 Depth of well foundation; 18.4 Different aspects of geotechnical investigation of a bridge site; 18.5 Bridge sites in hilly terrains; 18.5.1 Upper reaches; 18.5.2 Middle Reaches; 18.5.3 Lower reaches; 18.6 Bridge sites in alluvial plains; 18.7 Bridge foundation in subsoil in relation to scouring depth; 18.8 Construction materials for bridge; 18.9 Salient points related to bridge site
investigation; 18.10 Case study of bridges including a collapsed bridge; (1) Aqueduct cum road-bridge in Madhya Pradesh; (2) Tikira high level road bridge of Orissa; (3) Failure of a NH bridge over Chambal
river in Rajasthan; (4) Foundation problem of Banas bridge in Rajasthan; (5) Distressed railway bridge of Bhagalpur district, Bihar; 18.11 Summary; Review questions; 19. Highways, Runways, Canals, Power channels and Flumes; 19.1 Highways; 19.1.1 Site investigation for highway; 19.1.2 Placement of pavement materials and drainage; 19.1.3 Quality of aggregate materials and their function; 19.2 Runways; 19.2.1 The plan of a runway; 19.2.2 The investigation approach; 19.2.3 Runway
pavement; 19.2.4 Seepage problem in pavement and corrective measures; 19.3 Canals; 19.3.1 Basic aspects; 19.3.2 Site investigation by geological mapping and exploratory works; 19.3.3 Excavation and filling involved in
canal; 19.3.4 The design aspects of soil slope and water depth of a canal; 19.4 Power channels; 19.4.1 Choice of construction and selection of alignment; 19.4.2 Case study of power channel; 19.4.3 Siphon to carry water from canals and power channel; 19.5 Flumes; 19.5.1 Geological problems and remedial measures; 19.5.2 Aqueduct for carrying water from canal/flume; 19.5.3 Summary; Review questions; 20. Natural hazards; 20.1 Earthquake; 20.1.1 Causative factors of earthquake;
20.1.2 Seismic waves and other earthquake related terminology; 20.1.3 How to locate an earthquake; 20.2 Earth's interior and travel of seismic waves; 20.3 Continental drift and plate tectonics in relation to earthquakes;
20.3.1 Main possibilities of plate movement and resultant earthquakes; 20.3.2 Interplate earthquakes and Intraplate earthquakes; 20.4 Volcano and its activity related to earthquake and other effects; 20.4.1 Major types of volcano including an active volcano of Hawaii; 20.5 Magnitude and Intensity of earthquake; 20.5.1 Magnitude in Richter scale; 20.5.2 Seismic intensity in Marcalli scale; 20.6 Seismic zoning and earthquake resistant codes; 20.6.1 Seismic Zoning map of India; 20.6.2 Earthquake
resistance code for design of structure; 20.6.3 Tips and earthquake resistant design and construction; 20.7 Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS); 20.7.1 RIS experienced in different parts of the world;
20.7.2 The conditions for generating RIS; 20.8 Seismotectonic framework of India; 20.9 Geological consideration in aseismic design; 20.10 Clues for earthquake forecasting; 20.10.1 Various approaches including measure by GPS; 20.10.2 Earthquake disaster mitigation; 20.11 Case study of a devastating earthquake; 20.12 Tsunami; 20.14 Meaning of tsunami, its characters and destructive action; 20.14.1 Origin of tsunami; 20.14.2 Destructive actions of tsunami; 20.15 The great tsunami of December, 2004
affecting Coastal India; 20.16 Coastal erosion, protection of coast and safety against tsunami; 20.17 Summary; Review questions; 21. Landslide evaluation and mitigation; 21.1 Hazards of landslides;
21.2 Landslide types: classification and description; 21.2.1 Falls; 21.2.2 Topples; 21.2.3 Slides; 21.2.4 Lateral spread; 21.2.5 Flows; 21.2.6 Complex; 21.3 Causes of landslides; 21.3.1 Geological processes; 21.3.2 Human actions; 21.3.4 Natural causes; 21.4 Investigation of areas affected by landslides and slide-prone area; 21.5 Landslide hazard zonation mapping on BIS guideline; 21.6 Landslide hazard mitigation; 21.6.1 Modification of slope geometry and prevention of land erosion; 21.6.2
Drainage arrangement in relation to groundwater management; 21.6.3 Slope reinforcement; 21.6.4 Retaining structures; 21.6.5 Other methods of soil stabilization; 21.7 Instances of major landslides of India
with causes and effect; 21.8 Case study on landslides of India happened in the recent past; 21.8.1 Landslides in different parts of India that took place in recent pas; 21. 9 Case study of Mizoram landslides (after Mukherje et al, 2009); 21.10 Summary; Review questions; 22. Karstic terrain investigation; 22.1 Solubility of limestone and formation of karst; 22.2 Surface and subsurface forms of caverns; 22.2.1 Surface caverns: sinkholes, swallow holes; 22.2.2 Subsurface caverns:
solution channels/tunnels; 22.2.3 Stalactites and Stalagmites; 22.3 Investigation methods for evaluation of karstic condition; 22.3.1 Speleologic study; 22.3.2 Geophysical study; 22.3.3 Exploration by drilling; 22.4
Chemical and radioactive tracer study of reservoir; 22.4.1 Investigation method using chemical tracer; 22.4.2 Radioactive tracer study; 22.5 Construction of dams and reservoirs in karstic limestone; 22.6 Instances of karstic limestone problems and remedial measures; 1. Projects of India (i) Kopili, Meghalaya (ii) Obra, Madhya Pradesh; 2. Projects in other countries of world; 22.7 Summary; Review questions; 23. Guidelines for writing Engineering Geology report; 23.1 Objective of
engineering geology report; 23.2 Basic aspects; 23.3 Geological inputs; 23. 4 Report for different phases of site investigation; 23.4.1 Planning phase; 23.4.2 Design phase; 23.4.3 Construction phase; 23.5 Report for
special investigation; 23.6 In-field preparation of write-up for a report; 23.7 Illustrative example of report writing; (A planning stage report of Dr. J.B. Auden); 23.8 Summary; Review questions; 24. Physiography, stratigraphy and ores and minerals of India; 24.1 Physiographic features of India; 24.1.1 The Peninsular plateau; 24.1.2 The Extra-Peninsular area; 24.1.3 Indo-Gangetic plains; 24.2 The Stratigraphy of India; 24.2.1 Geological formations of India from Archaean to
Recent; 24.3 The Archaean Complex; 24.3.1 Gneisses and Granites; 24.3.2 Precambrian sediments; 24.4 Palaeozoic Era; 24.4.1 Cambrian System; 24.4.2 Silurian and Devonian; 24.4.3 Carboniferous and Permian; 24.5 Gondwana
formation; 25.6 The Mesozoic Era; 25.6.1 Triassic period; 25.6.2 Jurassic period; 25.6.3 Cretaceous period; 25.7 The Tertiary rock formations; 24.8 The Quaternary period; 24.9 Economic resources from produces of rock formations; 24.9.1Metallic minerals; 24.9.2 Non-Metallic minerals; 24.9.3 Coal and petroleum; 24.9.4 Building stones; 24.10 Summary; Review questions; Appendix A Geotechnical problems of dams and their solutions; A.1 Dams founded on igneous rocks; (1) Koyna ,
Maharashtra; (2) Ukai, Gujarat; A. 2 Dams built on sedimentary rocks; (1) Rana Pratap Sagar, Rajasthan; (2) Srisailam, Andhra Pradesh; A. 3 Dams founded on metamorphic rocks; (1) Idukki, Kerala; (2) Umiam, Meghalaya; A. 4
Dams founded on heterogeneous rocks; (1) Hirakud, Orissa; (2) Tenughat, Bihar; A. 5 Dams of Himalayan terrain; (1) Bhakra Nangal, Punjab; (2) Ranjit Sagar, Punjab; A.6. Instances of dam failure; (1) Tigra, Madhya Pradesh; (2) Kedarnala, Madhya Pradesh; (3) Khadakwasla, Maharastra; Summary; Appendix B Geotechnical problems of tunnels and their solutions; B.1 Hard rock tunnelling; (1) Umiam Stage-I, Meghalaya; (2) Balimela, Orissa; B.2 Soft rock tunnelling; (1) Rana Pratap
Sagar, Rajasthan; (2) Ramganga, Uttar Prades; B.3 Tunnelling in Himalayan terrain; (1) Jaldhaka, West Bengal; (2) Banihal, J. & K; B.4 Soft ground tunnelling; B.5 Kolkata Metro Railway Tunnel; Summary; Appendix C Glossary;
References

About the Author

Subinoy Gangopadhyay served for a period of 34 years in the engineering geology division of Geological Survey of India advising on geotechnical aspects for more than a hundred civil engineering projects in India and abroad. He retired as Senior Director of this premier Government organization. Dr Gangopadhyay is a founder member of Indian Society of Engineering Geology and served as the editor and Vice President of this Society. He has written nearly 150 technical
reports on geotechnical aspects of engineering projects of India including some projects abroad where he worked as a consultant. He has published numerous technical papers in reputed national and
international journals.